Transpersonal Psychology

iResearchNet

Home » Altered States of Consciousness in Mainstream Media

Altered States of Consciousness in Mainstream Media

This article explores the portrayal of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) in mainstream media, examining how these representations shape public perceptions and understanding of consciousness within the framework of transpersonal psychology. Through a historical lens, the article traces the evolution of ASCs in literature, film, and television, highlighting significant milestones and themes, such as mystical experiences, psychological effects, and cultural interpretations. By analyzing specific case studies, including influential films and television series, the article reveals how media depictions influence societal attitudes and contribute to the popularization of spiritual practices. Ultimately, the findings underscore the profound impact of mainstream media on audience beliefs about consciousness, while suggesting avenues for future research into the interplay between ASCs and media representations.

Introduction

Altered states of consciousness (ASCs) encompass a range of experiences that deviate from ordinary waking consciousness, including those induced by meditation, psychedelics, trance states, and various forms of sensory deprivation. These states have long fascinated researchers in the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and spirituality, as they provide insights into the complexities of human consciousness (Tart, 1975). In recent years, the portrayal of ASCs in mainstream media—such as films, television shows, and literature—has grown increasingly prominent, reflecting societal interests and shifting cultural narratives around the nature of consciousness and personal transformation (Vaughan, 2002). By examining these representations, we can gain a deeper understanding of how media influences public perception and engagement with ASCs.

Historically, media has played a significant role in shaping perceptions of ASCs, often oscillating between fascination and skepticism. Early portrayals in literature and art, including depictions of shamanic rituals and mystical experiences, laid the groundwork for contemporary representations in film and television (Grof, 1980). As the 20th century progressed, works like “2001: A Space Odyssey” and “Altered States” showcased the possibilities and dangers associated with altered consciousness, contributing to public discourse on the topic (Boyer, 1996). These narratives often reflect broader cultural anxieties and aspirations, illustrating the complex interplay between ASCs and societal values.

The significance of ASCs in mainstream media extends beyond mere entertainment; it serves as a cultural lens through which audiences can explore their own consciousness. Films and television series frequently utilize ASCs to depict transformative journeys, psychological struggles, and the search for meaning, thereby influencing viewers’ understanding of their own experiences (Pahnke & Richards, 1966). Additionally, the portrayal of ASCs in media has the potential to normalize practices such as meditation and psychedelic exploration, reshaping societal attitudes towards these experiences (Kettner et al., 2021). This article aims to critically examine the representation of ASCs in mainstream media, exploring its implications for both individual consciousness and collective cultural narratives.

Historical Context of ASCs in Media

The exploration of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) has a rich historical context, particularly in how these states have been represented in various forms of media. From early literature and art to contemporary films and television shows, the depiction of ASCs reflects changing societal attitudes and cultural beliefs surrounding consciousness and human experience. Understanding this historical context allows for a deeper appreciation of how media influences public perception and engagement with ASCs.

In ancient cultures, ASCs were often depicted in art, literature, and religious texts as pathways to divine experiences, healing, and spiritual insight. Shamanic traditions, for instance, utilized ASCs to connect with the spiritual realm, facilitating communication with ancestors or the divine (Eliade, 1964). These practices were often depicted in cave paintings, pottery, and mythological texts, illustrating the importance of ASCs in understanding human existence. This historical grounding highlights how ASCs have long been perceived as crucial to accessing deeper truths about reality, a theme that persists in modern media.

As society progressed into the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods, the portrayal of ASCs began to evolve, influenced by emerging scientific and philosophical ideas. During this time, literature and art started to reflect a growing curiosity about the mind and consciousness. Works by figures like René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza prompted discussions about the nature of consciousness, paving the way for more nuanced representations of ASCs (Shusterman, 2006). The Romantic movement further contributed to this exploration, with poets and writers such as William Blake and Samuel Taylor Coleridge emphasizing the significance of dreams, visions, and altered states as vital to human creativity and understanding.

The 20th century marked a significant turning point in the representation of ASCs, particularly with the advent of film and television. As media technology advanced, filmmakers began to experiment with visual storytelling that could depict altered states in novel ways. A seminal film in this context is Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), which explores themes of evolution, consciousness, and transcendence through visual and auditory experiences that mimic ASCs. The film’s portrayal of the monolith as a catalyst for human evolution serves as a metaphor for the transformative potential of ASCs, encouraging viewers to contemplate the nature of consciousness itself (Rosen, 2013).

Another pivotal moment in the representation of ASCs in media occurred with the release of Altered States (1980), directed by Ken Russell. This film explicitly addresses the scientific and experiential dimensions of ASCs, following a protagonist who undergoes sensory deprivation and psychedelic experiences to explore the depths of his consciousness. The film not only reflects the era’s fascination with psychedelics and their potential therapeutic uses but also highlights societal concerns about the implications of exploring altered states (Baker, 1998). Altered States is significant for its willingness to confront the complexities and dangers associated with ASCs, contributing to ongoing discussions about the responsible use of such experiences.

Television has also played a crucial role in depicting ASCs, particularly in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Shows like The X-Files and Twin Peaks explored themes of the supernatural, the unconscious, and ASCs, inviting viewers to engage with questions about reality and perception. The X-Files, for example, frequently incorporated elements of altered consciousness through episodes dealing with hypnosis, extraterrestrial encounters, and government conspiracies, reflecting a societal preoccupation with the unknown and the boundaries of human experience (Tucker, 2015). Meanwhile, Twin Peaks utilized surreal imagery and dreamlike sequences to challenge viewers’ understanding of narrative and reality, showcasing the potential of ASCs to disrupt conventional storytelling.

The increasing acceptance of ASCs in popular culture has been paralleled by a growing interest in mindfulness, meditation, and psychedelic therapy in recent years. Films such as Inception (2010) and Doctor Strange (2016) have popularized concepts of dream manipulation and altered realities, emphasizing the potential for ASCs to facilitate personal transformation and healing. These contemporary representations signal a shift toward a more nuanced understanding of ASCs, moving beyond sensationalism to highlight their therapeutic potential (Kettner et al., 2021).

The historical trajectory of ASCs in media illustrates a complex interplay between cultural beliefs, artistic expression, and societal concerns. From ancient shamanic practices to modern cinematic explorations, media representations of ASCs have evolved in tandem with shifting attitudes toward consciousness. This historical context not only enriches our understanding of ASCs but also underscores the power of media to shape public perception and cultural narratives surrounding these profound human experiences.

Common Themes and Representations of ASCs in Mainstream Media

The portrayal of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) in mainstream media encompasses a variety of themes and representations, reflecting the complex nature of human experience and the evolving societal attitudes toward consciousness. These themes often explore mystical experiences, psychological and physiological effects, cultural interpretations, and critiques of ASCs, shaping how audiences understand and engage with these profound states.

One prominent theme in the representation of ASCs is the depiction of mystical and transcendent experiences. Many films and television series illustrate characters undergoing transformations that are often linked to heightened states of awareness or spiritual awakening. For example, the film Avatar (2009) explores themes of interconnectedness and transcendence through the character of Jake Sully, who, upon entering an altered state in the alien world of Pandora, gains new insights into his identity and purpose. This representation resonates with traditional narratives of spiritual awakening found in various cultures, suggesting that ASCs can facilitate profound personal and collective transformations (Faber, 2010). Similarly, television series such as Lost utilize dream sequences and surreal experiences to convey characters’ inner struggles and growth, inviting viewers to reflect on their own consciousness and spirituality (Patterson, 2011).

Another significant theme is the psychological and physiological aspects of ASCs, particularly in relation to drug use and therapeutic practices. Many mainstream media portrayals depict characters using substances, such as psychedelics or stimulants, to access altered states. For instance, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998) portrays the chaotic experiences of its protagonists under the influence of various drugs, highlighting both the allure and the dangers of ASCs induced by substance use. This film serves as a commentary on the countercultural movements of the 1960s and 1970s, reflecting society’s fascination with altered consciousness while also cautioning against the potential for addiction and escapism (Zinman, 2007).

Conversely, the therapeutic use of psychedelics in films like A Beautiful Mind (2001) and documentaries such as Fantastic Fungi (2019) represents a more optimistic perspective on ASCs. These portrayals emphasize the potential benefits of ASCs for mental health, suggesting that experiences of altered consciousness can lead to healing and personal growth. The increasing interest in psychedelics for therapeutic applications reflects a broader cultural shift toward accepting ASCs as valuable tools for exploration and healing (Kettner et al., 2021). This narrative aligns with the resurgence of scientific research into the therapeutic benefits of psychedelics, which has gained momentum in recent years (Griffiths et al., 2016).

Cultural interpretations of ASCs also play a significant role in mainstream media representations. Different cultures have unique perspectives on ASCs, and media often reflects these varied interpretations. For example, the portrayal of shamanic practices in films like The Last Shaman (2016) highlights indigenous perspectives on ASCs, emphasizing the importance of cultural context in understanding these experiences. This documentary presents a nuanced exploration of a Western individual seeking healing through traditional shamanic practices in the Amazon rainforest, illustrating the clash between modernity and indigenous wisdom (Duke, 2016). Such representations can challenge stereotypes and promote greater understanding of the cultural significance of ASCs.

However, media portrayals of ASCs are not without their critiques. Many narratives perpetuate stereotypes and sensationalize altered experiences, often reducing complex phenomena to mere entertainment. For example, horror films frequently use ASCs as a plot device to evoke fear and chaos, reinforcing negative associations with altered states. Films like The Exorcist (1973) and Hereditary (2018) depict ASCs as dangerous or malevolent, perpetuating the stigma surrounding altered consciousness and marginalizing genuine spiritual or transformative experiences (Fisher, 2019). This sensationalism can overshadow the potential for ASCs to offer insights into personal and collective human experiences, limiting the audience’s understanding of the nuances involved.

Additionally, the commercialization of ASCs in media can dilute their authentic representations. The popularization of mindfulness practices and meditation in mainstream media often simplifies these practices, reducing them to trends devoid of their deeper spiritual or cultural roots. While films and advertisements promoting mindfulness can foster greater awareness of ASCs, they may inadvertently trivialize the transformative potential of these experiences (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). This commodification can lead to a superficial understanding of ASCs, undermining their significance in spiritual and psychological contexts.

In summary, the themes and representations of ASCs in mainstream media are multifaceted, reflecting a complex interplay of cultural beliefs, psychological experiences, and societal attitudes. From mystical transformations and drug-induced journeys to cultural critiques and therapeutic applications, these portrayals shape public understanding of ASCs and their potential impact on human consciousness. As media continues to evolve, it is essential to critically examine how ASCs are represented, ensuring that narratives honor the depth and significance of these profound human experiences.

The Influence of ASCs on Audience Perception and Behavior

The portrayal of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) in mainstream media has a profound impact on audience perception and behavior, shaping how individuals understand and engage with these experiences. Through narratives that explore ASCs, media not only reflects cultural beliefs but also actively influences public attitudes toward consciousness and its associated practices. This section examines how representations of ASCs in films and television can alter perceptions, normalize certain practices, and even inspire personal exploration of consciousness.

One of the most significant ways ASCs influence audience perception is by normalizing practices that were previously considered fringe or taboo. As films and television shows increasingly depict meditation, mindfulness, and psychedelics as viable paths for personal transformation and healing, they contribute to a broader cultural acceptance of these practices. For instance, the success of documentaries like Fantastic Fungi (2019) and the popularization of series such as Billions, which features characters engaging in mindfulness practices, help to legitimize ASCs in the eyes of the public (Kettner et al., 2021). This normalization is crucial, as it can encourage individuals to explore these practices in their own lives, fostering a culture that values mental health and self-discovery.

Moreover, the impact of ASCs in media extends to shaping personal beliefs and attitudes toward mental health and spirituality. Research indicates that exposure to media narratives about ASCs can lead to increased interest in exploring one’s consciousness and engaging in practices such as meditation or psychedelic therapy (Sessa, 2017). For example, the film A Beautiful Mind (2001), which portrays the life of John Nash, includes elements of altered consciousness resulting from his mental health struggles. This representation not only raises awareness about the complexities of mental illness but also opens discussions about the intersections between ASCs, creativity, and healing. Such portrayals encourage viewers to reflect on their own experiences with consciousness and consider alternative approaches to mental health.

The psychological mechanisms underlying the influence of ASCs in media can be further understood through the lens of social cognition theory, which posits that individuals learn and model behaviors based on the observations of others in media. Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory suggests that people are more likely to adopt behaviors they observe in characters they identify with or admire. Consequently, when viewers see relatable characters successfully navigating their ASCs—whether through meditation, psychedelic experiences, or other methods—they may be more inclined to experiment with these practices in their own lives. For example, the portrayal of characters in The OA engaging in deep meditation to access higher states of awareness can inspire viewers to explore similar practices, ultimately reshaping their understanding of consciousness.

While the normalization of ASCs in mainstream media can have positive outcomes, it is essential to consider the potential for misconceptions and stereotypes that may arise from these portrayals. Media representations often simplify complex experiences, leading to generalized assumptions about ASCs that may not align with reality. For instance, the sensational portrayal of psychedelic experiences in films like Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas can perpetuate negative stereotypes surrounding substance use, framing ASCs as chaotic and dangerous rather than transformative and healing (Zinman, 2007). Such portrayals may deter individuals from exploring the therapeutic potential of psychedelics, hindering the broader acceptance of these practices.

Furthermore, the emotional and psychological resonance of ASCs in media can elicit strong reactions from audiences, influencing their subsequent behavior. For example, films that depict the profound beauty of mystical experiences—such as The Tree of Life (2011)—can evoke feelings of awe and wonder, prompting viewers to seek out similar experiences in their own lives (Nelson, 2014). This emotional engagement not only fosters a deeper appreciation for the significance of consciousness but also encourages personal exploration and experimentation with ASCs.

The impact of ASCs on audience perception and behavior is also evident in the rise of online communities and social media platforms dedicated to discussing and sharing experiences related to altered states. The accessibility of information about mindfulness, meditation, and psychedelics through digital media has created spaces where individuals can connect, share insights, and support one another in their journeys of consciousness exploration. This phenomenon reflects a cultural shift towards valuing experiential knowledge and peer support, further normalizing ASCs in contemporary society (Kettner et al., 2021).

In conclusion, the representation of altered states of consciousness in mainstream media significantly influences audience perception and behavior. By normalizing practices such as meditation and psychedelic exploration, media contributes to a broader cultural acceptance of ASCs and encourages personal exploration of consciousness. However, it is essential to remain critical of the potential for misconceptions and stereotypes that may arise from these portrayals. Ultimately, as media continues to evolve, its role in shaping public attitudes toward ASCs and consciousness will remain a vital area for exploration and understanding.

Case Studies

Case studies of specific films and television series that explore altered states of consciousness (ASCs) reveal the nuanced ways in which these experiences are represented in mainstream media. Through the analysis of narratives, themes, and audience reception, this section highlights how these portrayals influence public perception and understanding of ASCs.

Inception (2010)

Christopher Nolan’s Inception is a landmark film that delves into the complexities of dream manipulation and the nature of reality, making it a rich case study for understanding ASCs. The narrative revolves around Dom Cobb, played by Leonardo DiCaprio, who is an expert in extracting secrets from the subconscious during dreams. The film intricately explores the mechanics of dream states, including the layering of dreams and the phenomenon of shared dreaming. Through its depiction of the “dream within a dream” concept, Inception invites viewers to consider the fluid boundaries of consciousness and the potential for self-discovery and transformation within ASCs (Griffiths, 2011).

The film also engages with themes of grief and loss, as Cobb navigates his own traumatic experiences while in altered states. This emotional depth resonates with audiences, prompting them to reflect on their subconscious motivations and the power of dreams to influence waking life. The widespread acclaim of Inception has led to increased interest in dream psychology and the nature of consciousness, demonstrating how cinematic portrayals of ASCs can shape public discourse (Baker, 2011).

The OA (2016-2019)

The OA, a Netflix original series, presents a unique exploration of ASCs through the lens of narrative complexity and character development. The story follows Prairie Johnson, a young woman who reappears after having been missing for seven years. Throughout the series, Prairie recounts her experiences in the afterlife and the transformative journeys she undertakes, often involving elements of meditation, near-death experiences, and alternate dimensions. The show’s unconventional storytelling and incorporation of mystical themes challenge viewers’ perceptions of reality and the potential for ASCs to transcend ordinary experiences (Van Hoven, 2018).

One of the notable aspects of The OA is its focus on the interconnections between consciousness and community. The series emphasizes the importance of shared experiences and collective journeys, as Prairie recruits a group of individuals to help her navigate these altered states. This portrayal fosters discussions about the social dimensions of ASCs, encouraging audiences to consider how communal practices can enhance personal exploration and spiritual growth (Duncan, 2017). By intertwining themes of trauma, healing, and interconnectedness, The OA invites viewers to reflect on the transformative potential of ASCs within their own lives.

Altered States (1980)

Ken Russell’s Altered States stands out as a significant film that directly addresses the scientific and experiential dimensions of ASCs. The plot follows a Harvard scientist, Edward Jessup, who conducts experiments with sensory deprivation and psychedelic substances to explore the depths of human consciousness. The film graphically depicts Jessup’s transformative experiences, which oscillate between enlightenment and madness, raising critical questions about the limits of human understanding and the potential consequences of exploring altered states (Baker, 1998).

The film serves as both a cautionary tale and a celebration of the quest for knowledge, reflecting the societal anxieties surrounding the use of psychedelics during the 1970s. Altered States engages with the dichotomy of the mystical versus the scientific, prompting audiences to grapple with the complexities of ASCs. By portraying both the profound insights and the dangers of such experiences, the film encourages viewers to consider the ethical implications of exploring consciousness, ultimately shaping public perceptions of ASCs as a double-edged sword (Zinman, 2007).

Fantastic Fungi (2019)

Fantastic Fungi is a documentary that explores the world of fungi and their potential therapeutic applications, particularly in the realm of psychedelics. The film highlights the use of psilocybin mushrooms in treating mental health conditions and emphasizes the transformative experiences associated with psychedelics. Through interviews with researchers, therapists, and individuals who have undergone psychedelic therapy, Fantastic Fungi presents ASCs as powerful tools for healing and self-discovery (Kettner et al., 2021).

The documentary plays a crucial role in normalizing conversations about psychedelics and their therapeutic potential, contributing to a cultural shift in the understanding of ASCs. By showcasing real-life experiences and scientific research, Fantastic Fungi encourages viewers to reconsider their preconceptions about psychedelics and embrace the possibility of personal transformation through altered states. This positive representation can inspire audiences to explore these practices within safe and supportive contexts, fostering a greater acceptance of ASCs in society.

The case studies presented illustrate the diverse ways in which ASCs are represented in mainstream media, highlighting their influence on public perception and understanding. From films like Inception and Altered States to series like The OA and documentaries like Fantastic Fungi, these narratives invite viewers to engage with complex themes surrounding consciousness, healing, and transformation. As media continues to evolve, its role in shaping attitudes toward ASCs will remain a vital area of exploration, emphasizing the need for critical analysis of these powerful representations.

Conclusion

The exploration of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) in mainstream media reveals a complex interplay between cultural narratives, individual experiences, and societal perceptions. As demonstrated through various films and television series, ASCs are portrayed not only as avenues for personal transformation and healing but also as phenomena that invite critical scrutiny and debate. By examining case studies such as Inception, The OA, Altered States, and Fantastic Fungi, it becomes evident that these narratives significantly shape public understanding of consciousness and its potential for exploration. This duality of representation underscores the potential for media to both enlighten and misinform audiences about the nature of ASCs.

Moreover, the normalization of practices associated with ASCs, such as meditation, mindfulness, and psychedelic exploration, highlights a broader cultural shift toward valuing mental health and self-discovery. As media increasingly depicts these practices in a positive light, it fosters greater acceptance and encourages individuals to engage in their own explorations of consciousness. Research suggests that exposure to these representations can inspire audiences to consider alternative approaches to mental health and spirituality, ultimately shaping societal attitudes (Sessa, 2017). This shift is particularly important in the context of rising mental health issues, as ASCs may offer valuable insights and therapeutic benefits.

However, it is essential to remain vigilant regarding the potential for misconceptions and sensationalism in media portrayals of ASCs. Simplistic or exaggerated representations can lead to misunderstandings about the complexities of these experiences and their implications for individuals. As media continues to evolve, fostering critical engagement with these portrayals will be vital in ensuring that public discourse surrounding ASCs remains informed and nuanced. By promoting accurate and meaningful representations of ASCs, media can play a crucial role in shaping a deeper understanding of consciousness and its transformative potential, ultimately contributing to a more informed society.

Bibliography

  1. Sessa, B. (2017). The role of psychedelics in the treatment of psychological disorders. Psychological Medicine, 47(5), 753-763. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716002867
  2. Baker, S. (1998). The ritual of the image: Film and the ecstatic experience. Journal of Film and Video, 50(3), 3-10.
  3. Baker, S. (2011). Inception and the dream of cinema. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 69(3), 257-266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6245.2011.00234.x
  4. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.
  5. Boyer, P. (1996). The evolution of the mind: A dialogue with the natural sciences. Yale University Press.
  6. D uke, A. (2016). The Last Shaman. [Film]. Waterstone Entertainment.
  7. Duncan, A. (2017). The OA: Interconnectedness and collective consciousness. Journal of Religion and Film, 21(1), 1-11. https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol21/iss1/3
  8. Eliade, M. (1964). Shamanism: Archaic techniques of ecstasy. Princeton University Press.
  9. Faber, R. (2010). Avatar and the mysticism of interconnectedness. Journal of Popular Film and Television, 38(3), 135-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/01956051.2010.509497
  10. Fisher, M. (2019). The role of horror in shaping perceptions of altered states. Journal of Popular Culture, 52(4), 795-812. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpcu.12774
  11. Griffiths, R. R. (2011). Inception and the neuroscience of altered states. Cognitive Neuroscience, 2(4), 230-236. https://doi.org/10.1080/17588928.2011.577477
  12. Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Carducci, M. A., & Pahnke, W. N. (2016). Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30(12), 1181-1197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116675513
  13. Grof, S. (1980). LSD psychotherapy. Harper & Row.
  14. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. Delacorte Press.
  15. Kettner, H., Provenance, A., & Tittsworth, C. (2021). The potential of psychedelics for transforming the treatment of mental disorders. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(2), 107-109. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.2731
  16. Nelson, R. (2014). The aesthetics of awe: The role of emotion in the appreciation of art and nature. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 72(1), 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/jaac.12037
  17. Pahnke, W. N., & Richards, W. A. (1966). The psychedelic experience in the human encounter with death. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 143(6), 485-498. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-196612000-00001
  18. Patterson, D. (2011). Lost and found: Spiritual awakening in contemporary television. Journal of Religion and Film, 15(1), 1-13. https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol15/iss1/2
  19. Rosen, M. (2013). The aesthetic experience: Aesthetic consciousness and the art of living. In A. T. D. Young (Ed.), The Routledge companion to aesthetics (pp. 119-130). Routledge.
  20. Sessa, B. (2017). The role of psychedelics in the treatment of psychological disorders. Psychological Medicine, 47(5), 753-763. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716002867
  21. Shusterman, R. (2006). Performing live: Aesthetics of the contemporary performance. Cornell University Press.
  22. Tart, C. T. (1975). States of consciousness. E. P. Dutton.
  23. Tucker, K. (2015). The paranormal in the popular imagination: A media studies approach. Journal of American Culture, 38(3), 185-198.
  24. Van Hoven, A. (2018). The OA: A study of interdimensional travel and altered states of consciousness. Journal of Popular Film and Television, 46(3), 150-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/01956051.2018.1445664
  25. Vaughan, F. (2002). Shamanism, consciousness, and healing. In The Oxford Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (pp. 181-196). Oxford University Press.
  26. Zinman, L. (2007). Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: The implications of psychedelic experience on the counterculture. Journal of American Culture, 30(3), 277-291. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-734X.2007.00519.x