This article explores psychological explanations for UFO encounters, examining the phenomenon through various theoretical frameworks. It delves into cognitive explanations such as perceptual distortions and memory errors, psychodynamic interpretations that link UFO sightings to unconscious processes and trauma, and the role of sociocultural factors like media influence and group dynamics. Additionally, psychopathological conditions such as delusional disorders and sleep paralysis are analyzed as potential contributors to UFO-related experiences. By integrating cognitive, psychodynamic, sociocultural, and psychopathological perspectives, the article presents a comprehensive understanding of UFO encounters, emphasizing the importance of psychological factors in interpreting these phenomena.
Introduction
UFO encounters have captivated human imagination and curiosity for decades, with reports of unidentified flying objects spanning various cultures and historical periods. While some claim these phenomena represent extraterrestrial visits, psychological explanations provide a more scientifically grounded approach to understanding UFO sightings and abduction experiences. The study of UFO encounters from a psychological perspective seeks to analyze the cognitive, emotional, and social factors that may influence individuals’ perceptions and experiences. This approach allows for a more nuanced interpretation that goes beyond the extraterrestrial hypothesis, focusing on how human perception, memory, and cultural influences shape such encounters (French & Stone, 2014).
Psychological research into UFO encounters highlights the importance of subjective experience and the role of the mind in interpreting anomalous events. Cognitive processes, such as perception and memory, are prone to errors and distortions, particularly in ambiguous situations like UFO sightings. Moreover, the human mind is wired to seek patterns and make sense of the unknown, often leading to misinterpretations of natural or man-made phenomena. Cognitive psychologists argue that these perceptual and cognitive biases are key to understanding why some people report seeing UFOs, while others in the same situation might not. Studies have shown that individuals’ beliefs, expectations, and cultural background also play a critical role in shaping their interpretations of ambiguous stimuli (Bartholomew & Howard, 1998).
In addition to cognitive factors, sociocultural and psychological dynamics contribute to UFO reports and abduction narratives. Media portrayals, cultural myths, and group influence significantly shape public perceptions of UFOs, amplifying beliefs through repeated exposure and collective reinforcement. Additionally, psychological mechanisms, such as trauma, sleep paralysis, and unconscious symbolism, offer deeper insights into why some individuals claim to have had direct contact with extraterrestrial beings. By investigating these psychological elements, researchers can better understand how UFO encounters arise not from external, extraterrestrial sources but from the intricate workings of the human mind (Clancy, 2005).
Cognitive Explanations for UFO Encounters
Perception and Memory Distortion
Cognitive psychology provides key insights into how perception and memory distortions contribute to UFO encounters. Human perception is not a flawless reflection of reality; rather, it is a constructed process that is susceptible to various biases and errors. In many cases, environmental conditions such as poor lighting, unusual weather patterns, or distant objects can lead to misperception of everyday stimuli, which are then interpreted as unidentified flying objects. Research shows that visual misperceptions such as pareidolia, where individuals perceive familiar patterns (e.g., faces or objects) in ambiguous stimuli, play a significant role in UFO sightings (Nickell, 2012). Additionally, inattentional blindness—the failure to notice an object that is not the focus of attention—can result in a delayed or inaccurate perception, leading individuals to believe they have witnessed something extraordinary.
Memory, like perception, is also prone to distortion. UFO encounters are often reported after the event has taken place, meaning that memory reconstruction can be influenced by external factors such as media reports or suggestive questioning. Studies in cognitive psychology show that memories are not static but can be altered or enhanced through suggestion, leading to the creation of false memories (Loftus, 2005). This is particularly relevant in the context of UFO abduction claims, where hypnotic regression is sometimes used to recover supposed “lost” memories. However, research suggests that hypnosis can increase suggestibility and the formation of false memories rather than uncovering factual details (French & Stone, 2014). These findings emphasize that many UFO reports can be explained through the interaction of perception and memory errors rather than extraterrestrial phenomena.
False Memories and Confabulation
False memory formation is another cognitive mechanism that contributes to UFO encounter reports, particularly abduction claims. Cognitive psychologists have demonstrated that memory is highly malleable and susceptible to distortion, especially in emotionally charged or ambiguous situations (Clancy, 2005). In many UFO abduction cases, individuals recount vivid, detailed memories of being taken by extraterrestrial beings, often under hypnosis or after exposure to media portrayals of such events. These “recovered” memories are frequently inconsistent with the individual’s initial accounts and are more likely to reflect suggestions made during therapy or interviews than actual experiences (Loftus & Ketcham, 1994). This process, known as confabulation, involves the unintentional creation of false details to fill in gaps in memory, leading to the belief that a fabricated event actually occurred.
The influence of media and cultural narratives is central to the creation of false memories related to UFOs. Since the 1940s, when UFO sightings first became widely publicized, the media has played a significant role in shaping public perceptions of extraterrestrial encounters (Bartholomew & Howard, 1998). The portrayal of alien abductions in movies, television, and literature often provides a template for individuals who later come to believe they have experienced such events themselves. In such cases, the line between fiction and personal experience becomes blurred, with memories influenced by external sources rather than direct, real-world events. Experimental studies on false memory have demonstrated how easily individuals can be led to “recall” events that never occurred, further supporting the theory that many UFO-related experiences are the result of cognitive distortions rather than genuine encounters (Clancy, 2005).
Psychodynamic Explanations
Unconscious Processes and Symbolism
From a psychodynamic perspective, UFO encounters can be interpreted as projections of unconscious psychological processes. Carl Jung famously suggested that UFOs represent modern manifestations of archetypal symbols residing in the collective unconscious, which reflect humanity’s anxieties and desires. Jung argued that the circular shape of UFOs symbolized wholeness and the self, representing a yearning for integration and completion in a fragmented world (Jung, 1959). According to this view, UFO sightings are not literal experiences but symbolic projections of unresolved inner conflicts or collective fears, such as fear of technological advancement, nuclear war, or the unknown. Jung’s theory suggests that UFO phenomena emerge from the psyche’s attempt to make sense of these deep-seated concerns.
These unconscious projections are reinforced by contemporary cultural and technological anxieties. In times of significant social change or existential threat, people may unconsciously externalize their inner turmoil onto external phenomena, such as UFOs. Psychodynamic theory posits that individuals project repressed fears, unresolved desires, and anxieties onto the mysterious objects they claim to see in the sky. This psychological mechanism provides a way for individuals to cope with overwhelming emotions by transferring them to an external, seemingly unrelated source (Krippner, 1994). UFO encounters, in this sense, serve as a symbolic outlet for collective psychological tension, with the extraterrestrial as a stand-in for deeper, less accessible psychological content.
Further supporting this theory is the way in which UFO sightings and abduction narratives often mirror psychological themes of fear, invasion, and helplessness. These themes frequently align with common anxieties about loss of control and vulnerability, particularly in the context of interpersonal relationships or broader societal concerns. Psychoanalysts argue that the invasive and terrifying nature of alien abductions may symbolize deep-seated fears of violation or powerlessness, often rooted in childhood trauma or attachment disruptions (Imbrogno & Horrigan, 2008). By externalizing these fears in the form of an abduction narrative, individuals may find a way to process and express their unconscious emotional struggles.
Trauma and Repression
The relationship between trauma and UFO abduction narratives is another critical element of the psychodynamic explanation. Individuals who report abduction experiences often describe feelings of helplessness, violation, and terror, which closely parallel the emotional experiences of trauma survivors. From a psychodynamic perspective, these abduction accounts can be understood as manifestations of repressed trauma that have resurfaced in a distorted, symbolic form (Mack, 1994). The abduction scenario, with its themes of control, violation, and experimentation, may serve as a psychological metaphor for past traumatic events, such as childhood abuse or neglect, that the individual has repressed or dissociated from conscious awareness.
Repression, a defense mechanism described by Sigmund Freud, involves the unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts, feelings, or experiences from conscious awareness. According to psychodynamic theory, when these repressed memories are triggered by certain stimuli—such as media portrayals of UFOs or stressful life events—they may resurface in altered forms, such as vivid dreams, flashbacks, or abduction narratives. The individual may then interpret these experiences as real events, attributing them to extraterrestrial forces rather than recognizing them as symbolic representations of repressed trauma (Mack, 1994). This helps explain why many abduction narratives share common elements, such as feelings of paralysis, invasive procedures, and memory gaps, which are also characteristic of trauma-related conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Moreover, psychodynamic theories highlight the role of dissociation in UFO abduction reports. Dissociation is a psychological response to trauma that involves a disconnection between an individual’s thoughts, memories, and sense of identity. Individuals who have experienced severe trauma may use dissociation as a coping mechanism, temporarily distancing themselves from the traumatic memory. In some cases, this dissociation may manifest as out-of-body experiences or encounters with non-human entities. Abduction narratives may thus represent a dissociative attempt to process unresolved trauma, with extraterrestrial beings symbolizing the dissociated aspects of the self (Ring, 1992). This suggests that UFO encounters are not literal experiences but psychological expressions of deep emotional wounds.
Jungian Archetypes and Collective Anxiety
Jungian psychology offers a broader, collective dimension to UFO encounters by linking them to archetypal symbols that express the collective anxieties of humanity. Jung (1959) proposed that UFOs, like other symbols, arise from the collective unconscious, a shared psychological reservoir of human experience and emotion. The appearance of UFOs during times of global crisis or technological upheaval, such as the Cold War or the space race, suggests that they symbolize collective fears about the unknown, technological progress, and potential destruction. In this sense, UFO sightings can be seen as modern mythological symbols, reflecting the archetypal tension between humanity’s desire for transcendence and fear of the unknown (Jung, 1959).
In this view, UFOs act as symbols of hope and fear, representing humanity’s longing for contact with the “other” while simultaneously expressing existential dread about the future. Jung argued that these sightings were not random but appeared during periods of heightened collective anxiety, when societal tensions were at their peak. For example, the rise in UFO sightings during the Cold War can be seen as a reflection of widespread fears about nuclear annihilation and the unknown consequences of technological advancement (Kripal, 2011). The circular shape of UFOs, according to Jungian theory, also carries symbolic meaning, representing the archetype of the “mandala,” a symbol of wholeness and the integration of the self. Thus, the appearance of UFOs may symbolize a collective desire for psychological integration during times of uncertainty.
This collective dimension offers insight into why UFO encounters are reported across diverse cultures and historical periods, though the specific details of these encounters often reflect the prevailing cultural concerns of the time. For example, ancient sightings of strange celestial phenomena were often interpreted as religious or supernatural events, while modern sightings are framed in the context of extraterrestrial technology (Bartholomew & Howard, 1998). By examining UFO encounters through the lens of Jungian archetypes, we can better understand how these experiences tap into universal human concerns, serving as symbolic expressions of collective psychological states rather than literal encounters with extraterrestrial beings.
Sociocultural and Environmental Factors
The Role of Media and Popular Culture
The sociocultural environment plays a significant role in shaping how UFO encounters are experienced and reported. Media, in particular, has a powerful influence on how people interpret ambiguous phenomena. Since the mid-20th century, popular culture has been saturated with representations of UFOs and extraterrestrial life in movies, television, books, and news reports. These portrayals create a cultural script that influences individuals’ expectations and interpretations of unusual events. Studies show that the frequency of UFO sightings often correlates with periods of intense media coverage on the subject, suggesting a feedback loop where media exposure increases public awareness and shapes individual perceptions (Bartholomew & Howard, 1998). When individuals encounter ambiguous or unfamiliar stimuli—such as lights in the sky or unexplained sounds—they may unconsciously draw on these cultural representations to explain their experiences, interpreting them as UFOs.
Media representations also contribute to the narrative framework of UFO abduction experiences. Abduction reports typically follow a pattern that includes elements like paralysis, medical examinations, and memory loss, which are frequently depicted in science fiction media. These elements were relatively uncommon in abduction reports before the media popularized such narratives in the 1960s (Clancy, 2005). As a result, many individuals who claim to have been abducted by aliens are likely influenced by cultural narratives already established in popular media, which provide a template for constructing their own stories. Researchers argue that these cultural scripts play a significant role in shaping both the form and content of UFO encounters, emphasizing the importance of sociocultural factors over objective reality in explaining the phenomenon (French & Stone, 2014).
The media’s portrayal of UFOs also serves to reinforce and legitimize belief in extraterrestrial encounters. News reports, documentaries, and online communities dedicated to UFO phenomena often present these experiences as credible, creating an environment in which individuals are more likely to interpret their own ambiguous experiences as evidence of alien contact. This sociocultural reinforcement can lead to the formation of belief systems that are resistant to alternative explanations, further entrenching the perception that UFO sightings are extraterrestrial in nature (Bader et al., 2011). In this sense, media and popular culture act as powerful drivers in the construction and perpetuation of UFO-related beliefs and experiences.
Group Dynamics and Social Influence
In addition to the role of media, group dynamics significantly shape how UFO encounters are interpreted and shared. Belief in UFOs is often reinforced through group membership, whether in formal UFO organizations or informal social networks. Social identity theory suggests that individuals derive part of their self-concept from the groups they belong to, and within UFO communities, the shared belief in extraterrestrial phenomena serves as a core element of group identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This group identity can lead to a reinforcement of beliefs through social validation, where members of the group validate each other’s experiences and dismiss skeptical perspectives. Groupthink, a phenomenon in which the desire for consensus overrides critical thinking, can also contribute to the reinforcement of UFO-related beliefs, particularly when group members are deeply invested in the idea of extraterrestrial contact (Janis, 1972).
Social influence also plays a key role in the spread of UFO-related beliefs through processes like social contagion. Studies have shown that belief in UFOs can spread through social networks, particularly when charismatic figures or authority figures endorse such beliefs. In cases of mass UFO sightings, the influence of a few key individuals can trigger a cascade of reports as others in the group conform to the dominant interpretation of the event (Bader et al., 2011). Social contagion can be particularly influential in situations where individuals are uncertain about what they have seen, making them more likely to rely on the interpretations of others. This dynamic helps explain why UFO sightings often occur in clusters and why certain regions or communities may have higher rates of reported encounters than others.
The influence of social dynamics is also evident in how UFO-related experiences are discussed and validated within social contexts. Once an individual reports a UFO sighting or abduction experience, their account is often shaped and reinforced by the responses of others. If the person’s experience is met with validation and belief, they may become more convinced of the reality of their encounter. Conversely, if their account is met with skepticism or ridicule, they may be less likely to share or elaborate on their experience. This social feedback loop plays a crucial role in determining whether UFO sightings and abduction claims are perpetuated or dismissed (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). In this way, group dynamics and social influence contribute to the persistence and spread of UFO-related beliefs.
Environmental Factors and Anomalous Perception
In addition to sociocultural influences, environmental factors play a significant role in the interpretation of UFO sightings. Many UFO encounters occur in conditions where perceptual distortions are more likely to occur, such as at night, during weather anomalies, or in remote locations with minimal visual or auditory reference points. These environmental conditions can distort perception, leading individuals to misinterpret natural or man-made phenomena as UFOs (Nickell, 2012). For example, atmospheric conditions such as lenticular clouds, which are often mistaken for flying saucers, or unusual weather patterns like ball lightning, can give rise to reports of UFOs. Additionally, human-made objects like aircraft, satellites, or drones are often misidentified as UFOs, especially in poor visibility conditions or when they are viewed from unfamiliar angles.
Anomalous perception, which refers to the brain’s tendency to misinterpret or fill in gaps in sensory information, is particularly relevant in UFO encounters. Under conditions of low visibility or when observing unfamiliar objects, the brain may attempt to impose meaning or structure on ambiguous stimuli. This can lead to the perception of movement or shape where none exists, contributing to reports of UFOs. Cognitive psychology research has shown that when individuals are primed to expect or believe in extraterrestrial phenomena, they are more likely to interpret ambiguous stimuli as confirming their beliefs (French & Stone, 2014). This expectation-driven perception explains why many UFO sightings occur in regions with a high concentration of UFO believers or during periods of heightened media coverage.
Environmental factors also contribute to UFO abduction reports, particularly through the phenomenon of sleep paralysis. Sleep paralysis occurs when an individual temporarily experiences an inability to move upon waking or falling asleep and is often accompanied by vivid hallucinations. These hallucinations frequently involve the sensation of being watched, touched, or abducted, leading individuals to believe they have been taken by extraterrestrials (Clancy, 2005). Sleep paralysis is more likely to occur under conditions of stress or sleep deprivation, both of which can heighten susceptibility to hallucinations and anomalous perception. As a result, many UFO abduction claims can be attributed to environmental and psychological factors rather than actual extraterrestrial encounters.
Psychopathological Explanations
Delusional Disorders and Hallucinations
Psychopathological explanations for UFO encounters often center around conditions like delusional disorders and hallucinations. Individuals with delusional disorder may develop fixed, false beliefs that are resistant to reasoning or contrary evidence, sometimes involving themes of persecution or grandiosity. In cases of UFO encounters, the belief that one has been contacted or abducted by extraterrestrial beings can fit within this delusional framework (McNally & Clancy, 2005). Delusional experiences, particularly those involving external control or mind manipulation, are not uncommon among individuals with paranoid schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders. Such individuals may interpret ordinary experiences through the lens of their delusions, transforming ambiguous or benign stimuli into perceived evidence of alien contact. These pathological beliefs are often reinforced by the individual’s social environment, where the proliferation of UFO-related media can serve as “evidence” that supports their delusions (Nickell, 2012).
Hallucinations, both auditory and visual, also play a role in explaining some UFO sightings and abduction claims. Hallucinations are false perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli and can be a symptom of various psychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia, severe depression, and bipolar disorder. In the context of UFO encounters, individuals may experience visual hallucinations that they interpret as sightings of alien spacecraft, or auditory hallucinations where they believe they are hearing extraterrestrial communications (Bentall, 2003). These hallucinations can be influenced by cultural factors, as individuals may draw on media representations of UFOs and extraterrestrials to construct their experiences. The content of these hallucinations often reflects the individual’s personal concerns or cultural fears, which are then externalized as UFO phenomena.
Psychopathological factors are further compounded by the isolation and social withdrawal commonly experienced by individuals with severe mental illnesses. This isolation can lead to a disconnection from consensual reality, making the individual more prone to interpreting unusual or ambiguous experiences as evidence of alien encounters. In extreme cases, such delusions can dominate the individual’s worldview, leading to significant impairment in social functioning. The persistence of these beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence, is a hallmark of delusional thinking and illustrates the complex interplay between mental illness and UFO-related experiences (McNally & Clancy, 2005).
Sleep Paralysis and Hypnagogic Hallucinations
Sleep paralysis is another psychopathological phenomenon that can explain many UFO abduction claims. Sleep paralysis occurs when an individual temporarily experiences an inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up. During these episodes, individuals often report feeling a sense of presence or pressure on their chest, along with vivid hallucinations of figures or beings in their environment. These hallucinations are hypnagogic or hypnopompic in nature, occurring during the transition between sleep and wakefulness (Sharpless & Barber, 2011). In many cases, individuals interpret these hallucinations as extraterrestrial beings or abduction scenarios, particularly if they have prior exposure to UFO narratives in the media or through personal beliefs.
The experience of sleep paralysis can be terrifying, as individuals are fully conscious yet unable to move or escape the perceived threat. This feeling of helplessness, combined with the vivid nature of the hallucinations, often leads individuals to believe they have been abducted by aliens (Clancy, 2005). Many abduction narratives include elements commonly reported in sleep paralysis episodes, such as feelings of paralysis, being watched or examined, and a sense of floating or being taken away. These similarities suggest that sleep paralysis is a key factor in the development of abduction stories, with individuals interpreting their physiological experiences through the framework of alien abduction mythology (French & Stone, 2014).
Research has shown that individuals who experience sleep paralysis are more likely to report belief in UFOs and extraterrestrial phenomena, particularly when they are exposed to media that reinforces these narratives. The combination of a frightening physiological event and cultural priming can lead to the creation of vivid abduction memories, which are often mistakenly perceived as real events rather than hallucinations (Sharpless & Barber, 2011). This connection between sleep paralysis and abduction narratives underscores the importance of psychological and cultural factors in shaping UFO-related experiences.
Dissociation and Trauma-Related Disorders
Dissociative disorders, particularly those related to trauma, offer another psychopathological explanation for UFO abduction claims. Dissociation is a psychological defense mechanism that involves a disruption in consciousness, memory, or identity, often as a response to overwhelming trauma. Individuals with dissociative disorders, such as dissociative identity disorder (DID) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), may experience flashbacks, fragmented memories, or altered states of consciousness that are interpreted as extraterrestrial encounters (Ring, 1992). These dissociative experiences can be triggered by sensory stimuli or emotional stress, leading the individual to reconstruct their traumatic memories as abduction scenarios.
The connection between trauma and abduction narratives is well-documented. Many individuals who report abduction experiences have a history of childhood abuse or other significant trauma, which may manifest in dissociative symptoms later in life (Mack, 1994). Abduction experiences often involve themes of control, helplessness, and violation—common elements in the experiences of trauma survivors. Psychologists suggest that abduction narratives may serve as a symbolic reenactment of past trauma, with the extraterrestrial beings representing the abuser and the abduction experience symbolizing the individual’s unresolved feelings of helplessness and fear (Clancy, 2005). This symbolic transformation allows the individual to process their trauma in a way that is more emotionally distant, framing it as an external event rather than an internal psychological wound.
Dissociative experiences are further reinforced by hypnotic regression therapy, which is sometimes used to recover “repressed” memories of abduction. However, research shows that hypnosis can lead to the creation of false memories, particularly in individuals who are highly suggestible or have a history of dissociation (McNally & Clancy, 2005). In many cases, the memories recovered through hypnosis are not accurate reflections of real events but are instead shaped by the individual’s expectations, cultural beliefs, and therapist suggestions. This process of memory construction highlights the role of dissociation and trauma-related disorders in shaping UFO abduction claims, illustrating how psychological factors can create the illusion of extraterrestrial encounters.
Conclusion
The psychological explanations for UFO encounters offer a comprehensive framework for understanding these phenomena beyond the extraterrestrial hypothesis. Through cognitive distortions, such as perception and memory errors, individuals often misinterpret ambiguous stimuli as UFOs or extraterrestrial contact. These experiences are further shaped by the formation of false memories and cultural influences, particularly through media exposure and societal narratives that reinforce belief in UFOs (Loftus, 2005; Bartholomew & Howard, 1998). The combination of perceptual biases and memory distortion emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in constructing UFO encounters, suggesting that these phenomena are largely the result of how the human mind interprets and organizes sensory information.
Psychodynamic explanations further enrich our understanding by highlighting the role of unconscious processes, trauma, and symbolism in UFO abduction reports. Jungian interpretations suggest that UFOs serve as modern archetypes, reflecting collective anxieties and desires for wholeness in times of societal upheaval (Jung, 1959). Additionally, abduction narratives often parallel themes found in trauma and dissociation, where individuals externalize their emotional and psychological pain into symbolic encounters with extraterrestrials (Mack, 1994). These psychodynamic perspectives illustrate how UFO phenomena can function as a psychological coping mechanism, providing individuals with a framework to process unresolved trauma and existential concerns.
Sociocultural and environmental factors also play a vital role in shaping UFO-related experiences, demonstrating the influence of media, group dynamics, and environmental conditions in creating and reinforcing these beliefs. The interaction between psychopathology, such as delusional disorders and sleep paralysis, and sociocultural narratives results in complex, often compelling UFO encounter reports (Nickell, 2012). Together, these psychological, social, and environmental factors reveal that UFO experiences are not isolated events but rather multifaceted phenomena influenced by a combination of mental, cultural, and perceptual processes. By viewing UFO encounters through the lens of psychology, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the human mind and its capacity to construct meaning from ambiguity and uncertainty.
Bibliography
- Bader, C. D., Mencken, F. C., & Baker, J. O. (2011). Paranormal America: Ghost encounters, UFO sightings, Bigfoot hunts, and other curiosities in religion and culture. NYU Press.
- Bartholomew, R. E., & Howard, G. S. (1998). UFOs and alien abductions: A cultural perspective. Skeptical Inquirer, 22(5), 35-41.
- Bentall, R. P. (2003). Madness explained: Psychosis and human nature. Penguin Books.
- Clancy, S. A. (2005). Abducted: How people come to believe they were kidnapped by aliens. Harvard University Press.
- French, C. C., & Stone, A. (2014). Anomalistic psychology: Exploring paranormal belief and experience. Palgrave Macmillan.
- Imbrogno, P. J., & Horrigan, M. (2008). Files from the edge: A paranormal investigator’s explorations into high strangeness. Llewellyn Worldwide.
- Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink: A psychological study of foreign-policy decisions and fiascoes. Houghton Mifflin.
- Jung, C. G. (1959). Flying saucers: A modern myth of things seen in the sky. Princeton University Press.
- Kripal, J. J. (2011). Mutants and mystics: Science fiction, superhero comics, and the paranormal. University of Chicago Press.
- Krippner, S. (1994). The psychological interpretation of anomalous experiences: An introduction to the field of anomalistic psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 34(2), 12-21.
- Loftus, E. F. (2005). The malleability of human memory. American Psychological Association.
- Loftus, E. F., & Ketcham, K. (1994). The myth of repressed memory: False memories and allegations of sexual abuse. St. Martin’s Press.
- Mack, J. E. (1994). Abduction: Human encounters with aliens. Ballantine Books.
- McNally, R. J., & Clancy, S. A. (2005). Sleep paralysis, sexual abuse, and space alien abduction. Transcultural Psychiatry, 42(1), 113–122.
- Nickell, J. (2012). The science of UFOs: Investigating the myths and the realities. Prometheus Books.
- Ring, K. (1992). The Omega Project: Near-death experiences, UFO encounters, and mind at large. William Morrow and Company.
- Sharpless, B. A., & Barber, J. P. (2011). Lifetime prevalence rates of sleep paralysis: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 15(5), 311-315.
- Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Brooks/Cole.