Transpersonal Psychology

iResearchNet

Home » The Role of Meditation in Mind-Body Integration

The Role of Meditation in Mind-Body Integration

This article explores the role of meditation in facilitating mind-body integration, a process crucial for maintaining psychological and physiological well-being. Meditation, particularly through its neurobiological effects on brain structures and autonomic regulation, promotes homeostasis and emotional balance. It is also shown to reduce stress and anxiety, enhance self-awareness, and foster resilience. Additionally, meditation has demonstrated physical health benefits, improving immune function and managing chronic illnesses through the mind-body connection. The article further examines the cultural and spiritual dimensions of meditation, contrasting Eastern and Western approaches, and highlights the potential for transpersonal experiences that enhance holistic integration. This comprehensive review provides a foundation for understanding meditation’s multifaceted impact on mind-body unity, suggesting future research and practical applications in health and psychotherapy.

Introduction

Mind-body integration refers to the harmonious connection between psychological processes and physiological states, where mental and emotional well-being directly influences physical health. Meditation has long been recognized as an effective practice for fostering this integration, having roots in ancient traditions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and Taoism. In contemporary contexts, meditation is increasingly embraced not only for spiritual purposes but also for its profound effects on mental and physical health. This holistic approach has gained considerable attention within psychological and medical communities, with studies indicating that meditation plays a significant role in improving emotional regulation, reducing stress, and promoting overall well-being (Goyal et al., 2014).

The mechanisms through which meditation facilitates mind-body integration are largely neurobiological and psychophysiological. Research has shown that regular meditation practice leads to structural and functional changes in the brain, particularly in regions associated with emotional regulation and attention, such as the prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex (Fox et al., 2014). These changes contribute to a reduction in the body’s stress response, enhancing autonomic regulation through the parasympathetic nervous system. Meditation also fosters a state of mindfulness, where individuals become more aware of their thoughts and bodily sensations, promoting greater self-awareness and a more balanced relationship between the mind and body (Tang, Hölzel, & Posner, 2015).

Beyond its neurobiological effects, meditation has demonstrated significant psychological and physiological benefits that are crucial for mind-body integration. Studies have shown that meditation interventions, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), significantly reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression, and chronic pain, which are often interrelated through the mind-body connection (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Additionally, meditation has been linked to improvements in immune function and cardiovascular health, indicating that its influence extends beyond mental health to include tangible physical outcomes (Davidson & McEwen, 2012). As the understanding of meditation’s role in mind-body integration grows, it continues to be a vital area of research in both psychology and integrative medicine.

The Mechanisms of Meditation in Facilitating Mind-Body Integration

Meditation plays a crucial role in fostering mind-body integration through its neurobiological and psychophysiological effects. Studies using neuroimaging techniques have revealed that meditation induces changes in brain structure and function, particularly in areas responsible for attention, emotional regulation, and self-awareness. For example, long-term meditators show increased grey matter density in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate cortex, regions involved in cognitive control and emotional processing (Luders et al., 2012). These changes contribute to improved emotional regulation and decreased reactivity to stress, thereby supporting a more harmonious connection between mind and body (Fox et al., 2014). Additionally, meditation has been found to reduce activity in the amygdala, a brain region responsible for the fight-or-flight response, leading to a calmer, more balanced physiological state (Taren et al., 2013).

In terms of psychophysiological mechanisms, meditation significantly influences the autonomic nervous system, particularly through its impact on the parasympathetic branch, which promotes relaxation and restoration. Regular meditation practice has been shown to lower heart rate, reduce blood pressure, and regulate respiratory patterns, all of which are indicative of enhanced parasympathetic activity (Tang et al., 2009). This relaxation response helps counterbalance the effects of chronic stress, which is often linked to dysregulation in the autonomic nervous system and associated health problems like hypertension, anxiety, and immune dysfunction (Benson, 2000). By inducing a state of deep relaxation and reducing physiological arousal, meditation aids in restoring homeostasis within the body, allowing for optimal functioning and integration of mental and physical processes.

Another key mechanism of mind-body integration through meditation is the cultivation of attention and awareness. Mindfulness meditation, in particular, enhances focused attention on present-moment experiences, fostering a deeper connection between mental states and bodily sensations (Lutz, Slagter, Dunne, & Davidson, 2008). This heightened awareness allows individuals to become more attuned to the subtle cues of their bodies, such as shifts in tension, discomfort, or relaxation, which can inform emotional and cognitive states. By bridging the gap between mental and physical experiences, meditation facilitates a unified mind-body system, where thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations are integrated and aligned. This integrative process enhances overall well-being and supports a more holistic approach to health (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007).

Psychological Outcomes of Mind-Body Integration Through Meditation

Reduction of Stress and Anxiety

Meditation has been widely recognized as an effective tool for reducing stress and anxiety by promoting mind-body integration. Research shows that mindfulness-based interventions, such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), significantly reduce symptoms of stress and anxiety by enhancing individuals’ awareness of their mental and physical states (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). These practices enable individuals to observe their thoughts and emotions without becoming overwhelmed by them, allowing for greater emotional regulation and stress management. Furthermore, meditation has been shown to lower cortisol levels, a key marker of stress, and decrease activity in the default mode network (DMN), which is associated with mind-wandering and rumination, often exacerbating anxiety (Brewer et al., 2011).

The integration of mind and body through meditation enhances coping mechanisms by fostering a sense of calm and resilience. This is particularly beneficial for individuals suffering from chronic anxiety disorders, as meditation helps them recognize the physiological sensations of anxiety (e.g., rapid heart rate, muscle tension) without reacting impulsively to them. As a result, the habitual stress response is replaced by a more balanced state of awareness and control. This shift reduces both the frequency and intensity of anxiety episodes, making meditation an essential practice for improving psychological resilience and stress regulation (Hofmann, Sawyer, Witt, & Oh, 2010).

Emotional Regulation and Psychological Resilience

Meditation plays a significant role in enhancing emotional regulation, a key component of psychological resilience. By promoting mindfulness, meditation encourages individuals to observe their emotional states with a sense of detachment, allowing them to respond to emotions rather than react impulsively (Desbordes et al., 2012). This detachment fosters emotional regulation by reducing the influence of negative emotions such as anger, frustration, and sadness, which are often triggered by automatic reactions. Studies have shown that regular meditation practice is associated with increased activation in the prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain involved in executive control and emotional regulation, further supporting its role in managing emotions effectively (Hölzel et al., 2011).

Psychological resilience is another outcome of mind-body integration through meditation. Resilience refers to the ability to adapt and recover from stressful or adverse situations, and meditation enhances this capacity by helping individuals maintain emotional stability during difficult times. Meditation fosters a sense of equanimity, where emotions are experienced without being overly identified with or consumed by them. This balanced emotional state enables individuals to respond to challenges with greater flexibility and composure, making meditation a valuable tool for strengthening psychological resilience and overall mental well-being (Chiesa, Serretti, & Jakobsen, 2013).

Increased Self-Awareness and Self-Compassion

One of the most profound psychological outcomes of mind-body integration through meditation is the development of self-awareness. Meditation practices, particularly mindfulness meditation, encourage individuals to turn their attention inward, fostering an awareness of their thoughts, emotions, and bodily sensations. This heightened self-awareness allows for greater insight into the patterns of one’s mind, including habitual thoughts and emotional responses (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). As individuals become more aware of their internal states, they are better equipped to make conscious decisions about how to respond to those states, promoting healthier psychological functioning.

Along with self-awareness, meditation fosters self-compassion, which refers to treating oneself with kindness and understanding in the face of personal challenges or perceived inadequacies. Self-compassion arises from the non-judgmental awareness cultivated through meditation, which encourages individuals to accept their flaws and emotions without criticism (Neff, 2003). Research has shown that self-compassion is linked to lower levels of anxiety and depression and contributes to overall emotional well-being (Germer & Neff, 2013). Meditation, by promoting both self-awareness and self-compassion, enhances mind-body integration and supports long-term psychological growth.

Meditation as a Tool for Physical Health and Healing

Mind-Body Integration and Chronic Illness

Meditation has been widely applied as a therapeutic tool in managing chronic illnesses, particularly due to its ability to promote mind-body integration. Chronic conditions such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and chronic pain are often exacerbated by stress and poor emotional regulation, both of which can be alleviated through meditation practices (Ledesma & Kumano, 2009). By reducing the physiological stress response, meditation helps modulate the autonomic nervous system, bringing the body back to a state of homeostasis. This process improves heart rate variability, lowers blood pressure, and reduces inflammation, all of which are critical factors in managing chronic illnesses (Black & Slavich, 2016). Research on Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) has demonstrated significant improvements in chronic pain management, where individuals report reduced pain intensity and an enhanced ability to cope with persistent discomfort (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).

In addition to pain management, meditation has been shown to enhance the quality of life for individuals with chronic illnesses by promoting emotional well-being. Chronic illness often leads to feelings of hopelessness and anxiety, which can further worsen physical symptoms. Meditation, by fostering emotional regulation and promoting mindfulness, helps individuals develop a more adaptive relationship with their illness. This psychological shift enhances their capacity to cope with the daily challenges of chronic illness and reduces the likelihood of stress-related exacerbations (Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008). Thus, meditation serves as an integrative approach that addresses both the physical symptoms and emotional dimensions of chronic illness, fostering a holistic healing process.

Moreover, meditation practices such as yoga and tai chi, which combine physical movement with meditative focus, are increasingly used in the treatment of chronic conditions. These mind-body practices help strengthen the connection between physical movements and mental awareness, promoting both physical rehabilitation and mental clarity (Wang et al., 2010). For instance, studies on tai chi have shown improvements in balance, flexibility, and cardiovascular health in patients with chronic conditions, highlighting the dual benefits of these integrative practices (Field, 2011). By focusing on the integration of physical health and mental well-being, meditation provides a powerful tool for managing chronic illnesses and enhancing overall health outcomes.

Enhancement of Immune Function

One of the notable physical benefits of meditation is its positive impact on the immune system. Several studies have demonstrated that meditation practices, particularly mindfulness meditation, can enhance immune function by reducing stress-related suppression of the immune system (Davidson et al., 2003). Stress has long been known to weaken immune responses, making individuals more susceptible to illness and slower to recover from disease. Meditation, by reducing cortisol levels and other stress-related hormones, helps to reverse this immunosuppression, thereby improving immune responses (Pace et al., 2009). Research has found that meditation can lead to increased activity of natural killer cells, which play a key role in defending the body against infections and cancer (Witek-Janusek et al., 2008).

Additionally, meditation has been shown to increase the production of antibodies, particularly in response to vaccines. A study conducted by Davidson and colleagues (2003) found that individuals who practiced mindfulness meditation exhibited higher levels of antibody production following an influenza vaccination compared to non-meditators. This finding suggests that meditation may enhance the body’s ability to respond to pathogens, contributing to better overall health. The relationship between meditation and the immune system illustrates how mind-body practices can have direct physiological benefits, supporting the integration of mental and physical health.

Furthermore, meditation’s influence on the immune system extends to its potential to reduce inflammation, a key factor in many chronic diseases. Chronic inflammation has been linked to conditions such as arthritis, cardiovascular disease, and autoimmune disorders, all of which can be exacerbated by stress (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010). Meditation reduces inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP), which is associated with heart disease, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are linked to various immune-related disorders (Black & Slavich, 2016). Through its ability to modulate the immune response and reduce inflammation, meditation serves as a valuable tool for enhancing physical health and preventing disease progression.

Meditation and the Gut-Brain Axis

Emerging research highlights the importance of the gut-brain axis in maintaining overall health, and meditation has been shown to positively influence this bidirectional communication system. The gut-brain axis refers to the complex interaction between the gastrointestinal system and the central nervous system, influencing digestion, immunity, and mood regulation (Cryan & Dinan, 2012). Stress, anxiety, and other emotional factors can disrupt this balance, leading to gastrointestinal issues such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), as well as mental health challenges like anxiety and depression. Meditation has been found to reduce symptoms associated with gut-brain axis dysregulation, offering a non-pharmacological approach to improving digestive and mental health (Mayer et al., 2015).

Mindfulness meditation, in particular, has been shown to alleviate symptoms of IBS and other functional gastrointestinal disorders. Studies indicate that meditation reduces the intensity and frequency of gastrointestinal discomfort by modulating stress responses and enhancing relaxation, which positively impacts gut motility and sensitivity (Gaylord et al., 2011). Meditation also promotes a more balanced microbiome, the community of microorganisms in the gut, which plays a crucial role in immune function and mental health (Mayer, 2011). The integration of meditation into treatment plans for gastrointestinal disorders highlights its role in maintaining a healthy gut-brain axis and promoting overall well-being.

Additionally, the gut-brain axis plays a significant role in mental health, particularly in relation to mood disorders such as anxiety and depression. Research has shown that meditation can influence the production of neurotransmitters and gut hormones that regulate mood and emotional states, further supporting the interconnectedness of the mind and body (Cryan & Dinan, 2012). By reducing stress and promoting relaxation, meditation positively affects both gut and brain function, enhancing mental clarity, emotional regulation, and digestive health. The holistic benefits of meditation on the gut-brain axis demonstrate its potential to support both physical and psychological healing.

Cultural and Spiritual Dimensions of Meditation in Mind-Body Integration

Eastern vs. Western Approaches to Mind-Body Integration

Meditation has its roots in Eastern spiritual traditions, where the practice has been central to achieving mind-body integration for thousands of years. In Eastern philosophies, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and Taoism, meditation is seen as a tool to transcend the ego and connect with a higher state of consciousness, integrating the physical body with spiritual awareness (Shapiro & Walsh, 2007). For example, in Buddhist meditation, the goal is often to attain insight into the nature of the self and reality, leading to enlightenment and ultimate liberation from suffering (Gethin, 1998). Similarly, in Hindu practices like Yoga, meditation aims to align the mind, body, and spirit through physical postures (asanas), breath control (pranayama), and focused attention, thereby achieving inner peace and spiritual unity (Feuerstein, 2003).

In contrast, Western approaches to meditation, particularly those introduced in psychology and healthcare, tend to emphasize the therapeutic and scientific benefits of the practice. Meditation is often framed as a stress-reduction tool or a means to improve mental and physical health rather than a spiritual journey. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and similar programs highlight the mental health benefits of meditation, such as reducing anxiety, depression, and chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Although Western applications of meditation have largely secularized the practice, the underlying principles of mind-body integration remain. These programs reflect a growing appreciation for the connections between psychological well-being and physical health, even if the spiritual elements are downplayed (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006).

Despite these differences, both Eastern and Western perspectives on meditation share the recognition that the practice leads to greater mind-body unity. While Eastern traditions frame meditation as part of a broader spiritual path, Western approaches have successfully applied these techniques in clinical and therapeutic settings to enhance overall health. The integration of both perspectives has led to a more comprehensive understanding of meditation’s role in promoting mind-body well-being, whether for spiritual development or psychological and physical healing (Shapiro, 2009).

The Role of Spirituality in Mind-Body Practices

Spirituality plays a significant role in meditation practices aimed at mind-body integration. In many Eastern traditions, meditation is inherently a spiritual practice, designed to transcend ordinary consciousness and connect individuals with a deeper sense of self or the divine. This spiritual connection is often considered essential to achieving full integration of mind, body, and spirit. For example, in Hinduism, meditation is linked to the concept of self-realization, where the practitioner recognizes the true nature of their self (atman) as part of a universal consciousness (brahman) (Feuerstein, 2003). Similarly, in Taoism, meditation focuses on achieving harmony with the Tao, or the fundamental essence of the universe, thereby aligning the individual’s mind and body with the flow of the cosmos (Kohn, 2008).

In Western contexts, spirituality in meditation is often seen as a more personal and individualized experience. While secular approaches like MBSR may not explicitly focus on spiritual growth, many practitioners still report experiences of heightened awareness, a sense of interconnectedness, and a deeper understanding of their place in the world (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). These spiritual dimensions of meditation are thought to contribute to psychological healing by fostering a sense of purpose and meaning, which are essential components of mental well-being (Koenig, 2012). In both Eastern and Western practices, spirituality serves as a bridge between mind and body, enhancing the depth and impact of meditation as a tool for holistic health.

The spiritual dimension of meditation also fosters a connection between the individual and a larger, transpersonal context. This transcendental aspect of meditation allows individuals to move beyond the confines of the self and experience a greater sense of unity with the world around them. As individuals connect with something larger than themselves, whether it is a divine force, universal consciousness, or the interconnectedness of all beings, they experience a profound integration of mind, body, and spirit. This spiritual transcendence is considered essential for achieving the fullest potential of mind-body integration (Walsh & Vaughan, 1993).

Transpersonal States in Meditation

Transpersonal psychology emphasizes the role of altered states of consciousness in fostering psychological growth and spiritual development. Meditation is one of the primary tools for achieving these transpersonal states, where individuals experience a sense of unity beyond their ordinary sense of self. These states often involve deep feelings of interconnectedness with the universe, profound inner peace, and a dissolution of the ego, which contribute to mind-body integration by transcending the duality between mind and body (Wilber, 2000). Transpersonal states in meditation are not only spiritual experiences but also promote a sense of mental clarity and emotional well-being by resolving internal conflicts and harmonizing the mind and body (Hart, 2013).

Meditative practices such as transcendental meditation and deep states of mindfulness have been linked to these transpersonal experiences, where individuals report a sense of “oneness” or “flow” with the universe (Walsh & Vaughan, 1993). In these states, the boundary between self and the external world dissolves, allowing the practitioner to experience a profound sense of integration between their mental and physical existence. These transpersonal experiences contribute to holistic healing by fostering a deeper understanding of the self and the interconnectedness of life, which can reduce existential anxiety and enhance overall well-being (Hart, 2013).

Moreover, these transpersonal states are often described as transformative, leading to lasting changes in how individuals perceive themselves and the world. The spiritual and psychological insights gained during these meditative states can lead to significant personal growth, as individuals become more attuned to their inner selves and their connection to the greater whole. The practice of meditation thus provides a pathway to not only mind-body integration but also to the integration of the individual self within a larger spiritual and cosmic framework (Wilber, 2000). This holistic integration is central to transpersonal psychology’s view of meditation as a tool for deep psychological and spiritual transformation.

Conclusion

Meditation plays a central role in facilitating mind-body integration, offering a holistic approach to enhancing both psychological and physiological well-being. As explored throughout this article, meditation’s neurobiological effects on the brain, particularly in areas related to emotional regulation, attention, and self-awareness, contribute significantly to the integration of mental and physical health. By promoting mindfulness and regulating stress responses, meditation fosters a harmonious connection between the mind and body, which is essential for overall well-being. The psychophysiological benefits of meditation, including its influence on the autonomic nervous system, demonstrate its capacity to restore balance and improve health outcomes, particularly in the context of chronic illness (Davidson et al., 2003; Tang et al., 2009).

In addition to its physical health benefits, meditation profoundly impacts psychological well-being by reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. The practice enhances emotional regulation and psychological resilience, allowing individuals to better manage their mental health and cope with life’s challenges. Furthermore, the development of self-awareness and self-compassion through meditation fosters personal growth and mental clarity, creating a more integrated and balanced sense of self (Neff, 2003; Brown et al., 2007). These psychological outcomes highlight the crucial role of mind-body integration in maintaining mental health, reinforcing the importance of meditation as both a therapeutic and preventive practice.

The cultural and spiritual dimensions of meditation further enrich its capacity for mind-body integration. While meditation has been practiced for centuries in Eastern spiritual traditions, its integration into Western psychological and medical frameworks has broadened its accessibility and applications. Whether for spiritual development or psychological healing, meditation facilitates profound transpersonal states, where individuals experience unity with themselves and the greater world (Wilber, 2000). These transpersonal experiences, combined with meditation’s scientifically recognized health benefits, make it a powerful tool for promoting holistic mind-body integration and overall well-being (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). Future research will continue to deepen our understanding of meditation’s multifaceted impacts, ensuring its continued relevance in both psychological and spiritual domains.

Bibliography

  1. Benson, H. (2000). The relaxation response. HarperCollins Publishers.
  2. Black, D. S., & Slavich, G. M. (2016). Mindfulness meditation and the immune system: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1373(1), 13-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12998
  3. Brewer, J. A., Worhunsky, P. D., Gray, J. R., Tang, Y.-Y., Weber, J., & Kober, H. (2011). Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 20254-20259. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112029108
  4. Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701598298
  5. Chiesa, A., Serretti, A., & Jakobsen, J. C. (2013). Mindfulness: Top-down or bottom-up emotion regulation strategy? Clinical Psychology Review, 33(1), 82-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.10.006
  6. Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2012). Mind-altering microorganisms: The impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(10), 701-712. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3346
  7. Davidson, R. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Social influences on neuroplasticity: Stress and interventions to promote well-being. Nature Neuroscience, 15(5), 689-695. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3093
  8. Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S. F., … & Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(4), 564-570. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3
  9. Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 292. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00292
  10. Feuerstein, G. (2003). The deeper dimension of yoga: Theory and practice. Shambhala Publications.
  11. Field, T. (2011). Tai Chi research review. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 17(3), 141-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2010.10.002
  12. Fox, K. C. R., Nijeboer, S., Dixon, M. L., Floman, J. L., Ellamil, M., Rumak, S. P., … & Christoff, K. (2014). Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 43, 48-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016
  13. Gaylord, S. A., Palsson, O. S., Garland, E. L., Faurot, K. R., Coble, R. S., Mann, J. D., & Whitehead, W. E. (2011). Mindfulness training reduces the severity of irritable bowel syndrome in women: Results of a randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Gastroenterology, 106(9), 1678-1688. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2011.184
  14. Germer, C. K., & Neff, K. D. (2013). Self-compassion in clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(8), 856-867. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22021
  15. Gethin, R. (1998). The foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press.
  16. Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga, E. M., Gould, N. F., Rowland-Seymour, A., Sharma, R., … & Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Internal Medicine, 174(3), 357-368. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018
  17. Hart, T. (2013). Transpersonal knowing: Exploring the horizon of consciousness. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 45(2), 139-159.
  18. Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(2), 169-183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018555
  19. Hölzel, B. K., Lazar, S. W., Gard, T., Schuman-Olivier, Z., Vago, D. R., & Ott, U. (2011). How does mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(6), 537-559. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611419671
  20. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016
  21. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., McGuire, L., Robles, T. F., & Glaser, R. (2010). Psychoneuroimmunology: Psychological influences on immune function and health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 537-547. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601
  22. Koenig, H. G. (2012). Spirituality & health research: Methods, measurements, statistics, and resources. Templeton Press.
  23. Kohn, L. (2008). Chinese healing exercises: The tradition of Daoyin. University of Hawaii Press.
  24. Ledesma, D., & Kumano, H. (2009). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and cancer: A meta-analysis. Psycho-Oncology, 18(6), 571-579. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.1400
  25. Luders, E., Kurth, F., Mayer, E. A., Toga, A. W., Narr, K. L., & Gaser, C. (2012). The unique brain anatomy of meditation practitioners: Alterations in cortical gyrification. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 34. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00034
  26. Ludwig, D. S., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2008). Mindfulness in medicine. JAMA, 300(11), 1350-1352. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.300.11.1350
  27. Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2008). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(4), 163-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005
  28. Mayer, E. A. (2011). Gut feelings: The emerging biology of gut-brain communication. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(8), 453-466. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3071
  29. Mayer, E. A., Naliboff, B. D., & Craig, A. D. (2015). Neuroimaging of the brain-gut axis: From basic understanding to treatment of functional GI disorders. Gastroenterology, 146(6), 1500-1512. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2014.02.027
  30. Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
  31. Pace, T. W., Negi, L. T., Adame, D. D., Cole, S. P., Sivilli, T. I., Brown, T. D., … & Raison, C. L. (2009). Effect of compassion meditation on neuroendocrine, innate immune, and behavioral responses to psychosocial stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(1), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.011
  32. Shapiro, S. L. (2009). Meditation and positive psychology. Handbook of Positive Psychology, 601-610.
  33. Shapiro, S. L., & Walsh, R. (2007). The science of meditation and the state of hypnosis. In R. G. Kunzendorf & B. Wallace (Eds.), Individual Differences in Conscious Experience (pp. 246-270). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  34. Tang, Y. Y., Hölzel, B. K., & Posner, M. I. (2015). The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 213-225. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3916
  35. Tang, Y. Y., Ma, Y., Fan, Y., Feng, H., Wang, J., Feng, S., … & Posner, M. I. (2009). Central and autonomic nervous system interaction is altered by short-term meditation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(22), 8865-8870. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0904031106
  36. Taren, A. A., Creswell, J. D., & Gianaros, P. J. (2013). Dispositional mindfulness co-varies with smaller amygdala and caudate volumes in community adults. PLoS ONE, 8(5), e64574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064574
  37. Walsh, R., & Shapiro, S. L. (2006). The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue. American Psychologist, 61(3), 227-239. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227
  38. Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (1993). Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision. TarcherPerigee.
  39. Wang, C., Schmid, C. H., Rones, R., Kalish, R., Yinh, J., Goldenberg, D. L., … & McAlindon, T. (2010). A randomized trial of tai chi for fibromyalgia. The New England Journal of Medicine, 363(8), 743-754. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0912611
  40. Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Shambhala Publications.
  41. Witek-Janusek, L., Amankwaa, L., Mathews, H. L., & Witek-Janusek, L. (2008). Impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction on immune function, quality of life, and coping in women newly diagnosed with early-stage breast cancer. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 22(6), 969-981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2008.01.012